(1) instructional objectives
(2) programmed instruction (and its offshoot, computer-assisted instruction)
(3) mastery learning
(4) contingency contracts
(5) applied behavior analysis

(1) About Instructional Objectives
In operant conditioning, the terminal (or desired) behavior should be specified in precise, observable terms before conditioning begins; instead of "instructional objectives," then, the ideal is a behavioral objective, with three specified components: (1) an observable, measurable outcome; (2) explanation of the conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited; and (3) the criterion for judging the acceptable performance of the behavior.  (e.g., On weekly written spelling tests, the student will correctly spell at least 85% of the assigned spelling words for the week.)
 

Advantages and Usefulness of Objectives
Objectives help with clear goal-setting for teachers trying to choose the most effective method of teaching a lesson and for students trying to understand what they're supposed to be able to do after the lesson.  Objectives are easily communicated between teachers, students, parents, etc.  Objectives also facilitate the evaluation of the student as well as the instructional program.
Instead of just lower level skills, such as knowing or understanding (being able to define or translate into your own words), students should also be doing things like applying (using info. in a new situation); analyzing (breaking info. into its constituent parts; synthesizing (constructing something new by integrating several pieces of information); or evaluation (critiquing or judging the value of info.).

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

1. knowledge (memorization)
2. comprehension (translating info. into your own words)
3. application (using info. in a new situation)
4. analysis (breaking info. down into its constituent parts)
5. synthesis (constructing something new by integrating several pieces of information)
6. evaluation (placing a value judgment on data; establishing and then judging by specific relevant criteria)

(2) About Programmed Instruction (and CAI)
PI (programmed instruction) is a technique for instruction involving, originally, a "teaching machine" and, recently, computer programmed instruction (computer assisted instruction).  Typically, PI uses "frames," or discrete segments, with a small piece of information and a question about it.  The student responds to the question and turns to the next frame to get the answer and the next small piece of information, etc.  Intrinsic to programmed instruction are several concepts and principles based on operant conditioning, including the following:

1. terminal behavior -- goals of instruction are specified at outset
2. active responding -- the student is required to make a response in each frame
3. shaping -- instruction begins with info the student already knows; new info is broken up into small pieces, and instruction proceeds through a gradual presentation of increasingly more difficult pieces, with the terminal behavior gradually shaped
4. immediate reinforcement -- because of the gradual shaping process, it's highly probable that the student will give correct answers to the questions asked; each correct answer is reinforced immediately with feedback that it is correct

(3) About Mastery Learning
This is an approach to learning in which a student must learn one lesson well before proceeding to the next lesson.  Mastery learning usually includes the following components:

1. small, discrete units -- each with a small amount of material
2. logical sequence -- units are sequenced so that each basic concept is foundation to later units (the process of identifying and sequencing course content, going from simpler to more complex, is called task analysis)
3. demonstration of mastery at the completion of each unit -- before going on, students get feedback and reinforcement that they have "mastered" the content by taking and passing a test
4. a concrete, observable criterion for mastery of each unit -- mastery level is specified in concrete terms (e.g., answering 90% of questions correctly)
5. "remedial" activities -- activities to reteach or extra practice activities are provided for students needing extra help or more practice -- students who don't exhibit mastery on the first try have additional support and resources

(4) About Contingency Contracts
A contingency contract is an agreement between a student and a teacher that specifies certain expectations for the student (the terminal behavior) and the consequences of the student's meeting those expectations (the reinforcer).  The formal structure and "one-at-a-time" goals of this type of approach seems to be effective in addressing diverse problems such as poor study habits and drug addition

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(5) About Applied Behavior Analysis
Applied behavior analysis -- also called ABA, behavior modification, behavior therapy, or contingency management -- based on the assumption that behavior problems are the result of past and present environmental circumstances, ABA encompasses a number of procedures whereby an individual's present environment is modified to promote the reinforcement of acceptable behaviors and the nonreinforcement of inappropriate ones; can be used with individuals, small groups, or large groups (notable types: group contingency, token economy with backup reinforcers).

Typical tenets of ABA are as follows:

1. present and desired (target) behaviors are specified in observable, measurable terms
2. an effective reinforcer is identified and a specific intervention or treatment plan is developed
3. behavior is measured both before and during treatment (using frequency counts, rate of response, or time sampling (dividing time periods during which individual is being observed into equal intervals, checking to see whether the targeted behavior occurred in that interval, and what reinforcement or other behavior management procedure was used)
4. the treatment is monitored for effectiveness as it progresses and is modified if necessary
5. measures are taken to promote generalization of newly acquired behaviors (one of the criticized components because some of the behaviors don't generalize well)
6. treatment is phased out after the desired behavior is acquired

Using Punishment in Classroom Settings
 

• time out -- a punishment that involves placing the misbehaving individual in an environment with no reinforcers (i.e., a dull, boring situation); a key is that the inappropriate behavior must stop before the child is released from the time-out situation (a negative reinforcer); release from time-out is contingent on appropriate behavior
• response cost -- withdrawal of a previously earned reinforcer; appears to be most effective when combined with reinforcement of appropriate behavior
• reprimands -- scolding or admonishing as punishment; reprimands are often more effective when they are accompanied by eye contact or a firm grip -- or spoken quietly in close proximity to the child being punished
• restitution and overcorrection -- restitution and overcorrection require people to take actions that correct the results of their misdeeds.  In restitution, a misbehaving individual must return the environment to the same state of affairs it was in before the misbehavior (e.g., a child who breaks a window must pay for a new one; child who makes a mess must clean it up).  Restitution is a good example of a logical consequence, where the punishment fits the crime.  There are two types of overcorrection: (1) In restitutional overcorrection, the punished individual must make things better than they were before the inappropriate behavior (e.g., a student who throws food in the lunchroom has to clean the whole lunchroom).
• positive practice --  (2) In positive-practice overcorrection, an individual must repeat an action, this time doing it correctly, perhaps in an exaggerated fashion (e.g., a student who runs dangerously down a corridor might be asked to go back and walk (perhaps in slow motion) down the hall).

Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively

• The punishment must be punishing.  True punishment decreases the response it follows.  Sometimes adults make assumptions about what consequences will be punishment, but sometimes a common punishment might be reinforcing (e.g., the child for whom time-out is a pleasure; the kid who hates school suspended for nonattendance).
• The punishment must be strong enough to be effective, but not overly severe.  Punishment that is too short or mild is not effective (e.g., fines are not sufficient deterrents for many drunk drivers; threat of getting a bad grade is not sufficient to keep many students from not studying).  Punishment that is overly severe may have undesirable side effects, such as resentment, hostility, or escape behavior, and may reappear at its original level once the punisher has left the scene.
• Punishment should be threatened once before it is administered.  People should be warned ahead of time, since punishment is most likely to deter behavior when an individual knows that the behavior will lead to punishment, what that punishment will be, and that the punishment is, in fact, likely to occur as promised.
• The behavior to be punished should be described in clear, concrete terms.  Students should understand exactly which responses are unacceptable. (e.g., students told "disruption of the class is unacceptable" might not actually know what "disruption" means, exactly, and if "getting out of your seat without permission" is included, the student needs to know that).
• Punishment should be consistent.  Punishment is much more effective when it is a consistent consequence of a particular response.  When a response is punished only occasionally, the response disappears slowly, if at all.
• Whenever possible, the environment should be modified so that the misbehavior is less likely to occur.  The temptation to engage in a misbehavior should be reduced or, if possible, eliminated.  (e.g., people on diets should not stock their kitchens with junk food; cheating on exams can be reduced by having students sit apart from one another or by administering two different forms of the exam)
• Desirable alternative behaviors should be taught and reinforced.  Punishment is more effective combined with reinforcement of appropriate behavior.  A misbehavior is more likely to be permanently suppressed when alternative behaviors are reinforced, especially when those behaviors are incompatible with the punished behavior.  (e.g., if punishing playground aggression, reinforce appropriate social behavior)
• Whenever possible, punishment should immediately follow the inappropriate behavior.  Effectiveness of punishment decreases dramatically when delayed, although if punishment cannot follow the misbehavior, the punished behavior must be clearly described.
• An explanation of why the behavior is unacceptable should be given.  Punishment is more effective when reasons why certain behaviors cannot be tolerated are given.  (e.g., "When you talk without permission and when you get out of your seat during quiet reading time, you keep other children from getting their work done.")  The advantages of this are that providing the reasoning for the punishment lessens the critical factor of immediacy in the punishment, increases the likelihood that similar misbehaviors are also suppressed (the effect of the punishment generalizes to other behaviors), increases likelihood that the misbehavior will be suppressed even when the punisher is absent, and helps with older children's expectation that they be told why they cannot engage in certain behaviors and are less likely to be defiant when reasons are provided.
• Some punishments that are particularly ineffective and should be avoided.  Not generally effective and not recommended are physical punishment (especially with older children), psychological punishment, extra classwork, and suspension from school.  Alternate to suspension is in-house suspension (in-house time-out), which does not reward misbehaving students by removing them from the school environment but prevents interacting with peers that most students find rewarding.
• Punishment should be used sparingly.  An effective punishment is one that does not need to be administered very often to be effective.  When punishment is a frequent occurrence, the numerous disadvantages of punishment are likely to appear (i.e., anger, resentment, avoidance, etc.).