Study notes from Ormrod's Human Learning

[ref:  Ormrod, J.E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.] 

Definitions and perspectives of learning: Two definitions of learning: Behaviorist: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. This refers to a change in behavior, an external change that we can observe. Cognitive: Learning is a relatively permanent change in mental associations due to experience. This definition focuses on a change in mental associations, an internal change that we cannot observe. BEHAVIORISM:  Assumptions | History | Contemporary views | General implications | Summary  | CLASSICAL CONDITIONING | OPERANT CONDITIONING --------------------------------- Overview of Behaviorism: Assumptions of behaviorism: 1. The primary means of investigating learning is by observation. 2. Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals. Behaviorists typically state that human beings and other animals learn in similar ways. 3. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses. Typically learning is described as a stimulus and response relationship, S = R. 4, Internal cognitive processes are largely excluded from scientific study. 5. Learning involves a behavior change. Some behaviorists proposed that if no observable change happens, then no learning has happened. 6. Organisms are born as blank slates. Organisms are not born with any predispositions to be made in certain ways. Since each organism has a different experience with the environment, each will have a different set of behaviors. 7. Learning is largely the result of environmental events. Behaviorists tend to use the term conditioning instead of learning to reflect this. The most useful theories tend to be universal ones. 8. The learning of all behavior is best explained by as few learning principles as possible. Top History of Behaviorism: Ivan Pavlov: Pavlov developed the theory known now as classical conditioning through the study of dogs. From his perspective learning begins with a stimulus response connection. In this theory a certain stimulus leads to a particular response. Edward Thorndike: Thorndike introduced a theory of learning now called connectionism. Thorndike emphasized the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of stimulus response connections. He postulated, "Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened, responses that are followed by discomfort weakened. " Thorndike so proposed that practice influences s = r connections as well. His idea that rewards promote learning continues to be a key component of behaviorist theory today. John Watson: Watson introduced the term behaviorism and was a vocal advocate in the early part of the 20th century. Watson called for the use of scientific objectivity and experiment in to the study of psychological phenomena. He also proposed a law of frequency that stressed the importance of repetition. "The more frequent a stimulus and response to occur in association with each other, the stronger that habit will become." Watson's law of recency:   "The response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus." Edwin Guthrie: Edwin Guthrie proposed a contiguity theory:   "A stimulus that is followed by a particular response will, upon its recurrence, tend to be followed by the same response again. This stimulus response connection gains in its full strength on one trial." Guthrie conducted little research on his ideas; therefore doubt has been cast upon his theories through later research. Clark Hull: Clark Hull introduced the idea that characteristics can be unique to different organisms. He also proposed that intervening variable unique to each organism and affects the strength of the response. He modified the stimulus response theory to stimulus organism response, S-O-R. One intervening variable influencing the occurrence of a response is habit strength. A second intervening variable is the organism’s drive, which is an internal state of arousal that motivates its behavior. Clark also proposed that inhibitory factors could decrease the likelihood of a response. He also proposed a habit family hierarchy, which means an organism will, when given the chance, usually choose the strongest response connected to the strongest habit. B. F. Skinner: Scanner is probably the best known psychologist in the behaviorist tradition. He proposed the theory of operant conditioning. Skinner spoke only about the strengthening of responses, not the strengthening of habits. Skinner used the term reinforcer instead of reward. His most fundamental principle is his law of conditioning: "A response followed by a reinforcing stimulus is strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again. " A second principle was his law of extinction:  "A response that is not followed by a reinforcing stimulus is weakened and therefore less likely to occur again. " Top Contemporary behaviorism: Even though much research on human thought has shifted towards a cognitive position many still study the behaviorist perspective. Several trends are happening:  One is a trend towards more focus on motivation. Also there is an increased attention to the role of adverse consequences. A final trend is an increasing recognition that learning and performance must be considered as separate, though related entities. General educational implications of behaviorism: Emphasis on behavior: Students should be active respondents to learning, and in the learning process. They should be given an opportunity to actually behave or demonstrate learning. Secondly students should be assessed by observing behavior, we can never assume that students are learning unless we can observe that behavior is changing. Drill and practice: the repetition of stimulus response habits can strengthen those habits. For example, some believe that the best way to improve reading is to have students read more and more. Breaking habits: in order to break habits, that teacher needs to lead an individual to make a new response to this same old stimulus. Top Summary: Know these! Behaviorism encompasses a group of theories that share several common assumptions:   Generalizability of learning principles across species The importance of focusing on external observable advance Blank-slate nature of organisms Classical conditioning Emphasis on observable behavior The use of drill and practice for teaching basic skills Several methods for breaking habits An attention to the consequences of student behaviors. Top Classical Conditioning: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:  Model | Basic Concepts | Contemporary perspectives | Educational implications  | OPERANT CONDITIONING The Classical Conditioning Model Pavlov's experiment brought about the classical conditioning model. In this model there are three steps. Step one: a neutral stimulus (NS) is given Step two: the NS is combined with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which results in an unconditioned response (UCR). Step three: a conditioned stimulus is created (CS) which results in a conditioned response (CR). This classical conditioning model is applicable across many different organisms, it must be noted that it mainly works with lower level organisms, or at least works better. For human beings, classical conditioning can be used to explain fears and phobias that people develop. (Examples are:  fear of the dark or loud noises in young children. Also: fear of failure may be another example of classical conditioning.) Top of page | Classical conditioning heading Basic concepts in classical conditioning: There are several principles that are associated with classical conditioning, some of these are: Extinction: a conditioned response will disappear over time when the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented. Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously extinguished response. Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in this same way to experience stimuli. For example, all fuzzy animals scaring a young child instead of just a fuzzy cat. Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate between various stimuli. Higher order conditioning: this is when a neutral stimulus can cause the conditioned response sense if it had been associated with the conditioned stimulus. Top of page | Classical conditioning heading Contemporary perspectives on classical conditioning: The potential addition to stimulus must occur only when the unconditioned stimulus is about to follow. Classical conditioning involves cognition as well as responding. In fact some behaviorist are now beginning to talk about thinking processes that they previously deliberately avoided. Classical conditioning can be used to change inappropriate responses. For example, classical conditioning can be used to overcome certain fears and phobias. This can be done, using one of two methods: Using the first method, undesirable responses can be extinguished by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus thus causing the conditioned response to disappear. The second method involves use of counter-conditioning. This is when more desirable responses are conditioned to offset the inappropriate conditioned responses. Top of page | Classical conditioning heading Educational implications of classical conditioning: Students should experience academic tasks and contexts that cause or encourage pleasant emotions. They should be able to feel enthusiasm, excitement, or enjoyment in their learning context. Rather than being in context that cause anxiety, disappointment, or anger. Mathematics anxiety is an example of classical conditioning that can be mitigated with classical conditioning.   Top of page | Classical conditioning heading Operant Conditioning: OPERANT CONDITIONING:  Model | Reinforcible behaviors | Basic concepts | Nature of Reinforcement | Effectiveness | Contemporary perspectives | Skinner's view | Applications | Criticisms | Punishment | Most Appropriate Uses | The Operant Conditioning Model: Skinner’s basic principle of operant conditioning is as follows: a response followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again. Skinner used the term reinforcer instead of reward to describe the consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior. A reinforcer is the stimulus that increases the frequency of a response it follows. Three important conditions for operant conditioning: The reinforcer must follow the response. The reinforcer must follow immediately. The reinforcer must be coupled with the response. This means that the reinforcer must be appropriate and linked to the response, a example, rewarding students in a class that deserve it versus rewarding all students because you feel sorry for some of the students. What Behaviors can be Reinforced? Virtually any behavior; academic, social, or psychomotor can be learned or modified through operant conditioning. Contrasting operant conditioning and classical conditioning: Classical conditioning pairs the unconditional stimulus and the conditional stimulus. In operant conditioning a response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus. The nature of the response is different; it is involuntary in classical conditioning being elicited by a stimulus. In operant conditioning it is voluntary because the response is emitted by the organism. Skinner’s term operant reflects the idea that the organism actually operates, it can have an affect on the environment. Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning: Baseline or free operant level: This level is the frequency of a response in the absence of reinforcements, thus the baseline level of responses. Terminal behavior: Terminal behavior it is the form and frequency of a desired response at the end of the reinforcement or instructional program. Extinction: Extinction occurs when the behavior or response fades out over time due to non-reinforcement. Superstitious behavior: Sometimes a behavior will be exhibited when it is paired with other reinforcers that are not the actual designed reinforcer. This happens when reinforcement is random and not contingent on any particular behavior. Shaping: Sometimes a response is not visible or has not been demonstrated and thus cannot be reinforced. Skinner proposed the idea of shaping where successive approximations are reinforced until the desired behavior is fully exhibited. Chaining: chaining is the learning of a sequence of responses through shaping. Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading The Nature of Reinforcement: Primary and secondary reinforcers: a primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a biological need. A secondary reinforcer is also known as a conditioned reinforcer, it is a previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing to an organism through association with another reinforcer. Examples of secondary reinforcers are praise, grades, money, and feelings of success. Types of reinforcement:  positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment: Positive reinforcement: involves the presentation of the stimulus after the response. Positive reinforcement has the effect of increasing the response. Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement increases a response through the removal of the stimulus, usually an adverse or unpleasant one. For example, the removal of guilt or anxiety can be a very powerful negative reinforcer. Punishment: Remember positive and negative reinforcement increasethe responses they follow. Punishment is likely to decrease those responses. Different kinds of reinforcing stimuli: Material reinforcer: This is an actual object, like food or prizes. Usually not a good idea to use in educational situations. Social reinforcer: This is a gesture, usually from one person to another, that communicates positive regard. This can be teacher attention, approval, praise, and appreciation. Notice that this has a social learning leaning or connotation. Activity reinforcer: This is an opportunity to engage in and favorite activity. For example, students can't participate in a party or watch a movie unless they have successfully completed certain tasks. Intrinsic reinforcers: When an individual engages in a certain response because it gives internal good feelings. For example, they feel proud after successfully completing an assignment, are relieved after finishing a difficult project successfully.   Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement: Timing: It is very important that the reinforcement immediately follows the desired behavior. Magnitude and appeal: The larger and more appealing the enforcer, the faster a response will be learned and the more frequently it will be displayed. Consistency: Reinforcement needs to be consistent in relation to the desired action. This can be a one to one relationship, however it does not need to be always in this pattern. Reinforcement can occur with a ratio schedule, a variable ratio schedule, or an interval schedule. Stimulus control: Students or organisms can learn when an appropriate response can be given after a stimulus, for example students know that is appropriate to leave class after the bell rings. Stimulus generalization: Organisms can learn how to give a response to similar stimulus, thus the stimulus becomes generalized. Stimulus control in the classroom: In the classroom different responses are desirable at different times. Two strategies have been proposed to control this. Cueing: teachers can provide nonverbal cues as to what desired response is expected or required. Setting events: These occur when the teacher controls the environment to help control behavior. For example, cooperative games help exhibit cooperative behavior. Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Contemporary Perspectives on Operant Conditioning: Behavior is better understood by looking at a larger context and longer time frame than has traditionally been the case. Operant conditioning involves cognition as well as behavior. Operant and classical conditioning, taken together; do not completely determine the behaviors that an organism will exhibit on any given occasion. Just as reinforcement increases the frequency of a response, punishment can be an effective means of decreasing a response. When reinforcement doesn't work, there are usually circumstances such as the following: The reinforcer is not reinforcing, Reinforcement is not consistent The individual looses too much or gains too little by changing a behavior Too much is expected too soon. Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Skinner on Education: Reinforcement first needs to be more consistent in the classroom. Often reinforcement is too late or delayed from the desired response. Teachers often end up punishing misbehaviors instead of reinforcing positive responses. Skinner urged educators to focus on reinforcement and student successes rather than on punishing student failures. Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Applications of Operant Conditioning: At least five educative notions can be attributed to operant conditioning principles.  They are 1. instructional objectives 2. programmed instruction 3. mastery learning 4. contingency contracts 5. applied behavior analysis 1.  Instructional objectives or behavioral objectives: Instructional objectives are also known as behavioral objectives. A behavioral objective has three components: First the outcome is stated in terms of an observable and measurable behavior. Secondly, a behavioral objected specifies the conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited. Finally the objective includes a criterion or way of judging the acceptable performance of behavior. Current criticism of instructional objectives is that they tend to focus on the lower level skills which can be demonstrated, and not on higher order skills. 2.  Programmed instruction and computer assisted instruction: Note: example is Delta. Programmed instruction is instruction that is presented in discreet pieces called frames. Each frame builds on the previous frame. Intrinsic to programmed instruction is several concepts or principles: Terminal behavior: the goals of instruction or stated in a way that they can be observed or demonstrated. Active responding: the student is required to make a response on each frame. Shaping: instruction begins with previous knowledge, is broken into small pieces, and builds step by step. Immediate reinforcement: because instruction is in small bits and pieces, the likelihood of correct responses is increased. This is especially true with computer assisted instruction where the computer program gives audio or verbal feedback upon receiving the correct answer. Thus the student is immediately reinforced upon giving the correct answer. 3.  Mastery learning: Mastery learning is the idea that students learn one lesson very well before continuing on to the next lesson. Thus students can learn very complex behaviors. There are several principles on mastery learning, or components: Small discrete units. A logical sequence. Demonstration of mastery at the completion of each unit. A concrete observable criterion for mastery of each unit. Additional remedial activities are provided for students needing extra help or practice. 4.  Contingency contracts: A contingency contract is a contract between teacher and student to bring about a desired behavior. In some schools,  it is called a behavioral contract. Such a contract should specify the desired behavior and consequences upon achieving that behavior. Contracts should require small tasks. Reinforcement should be contingent on accomplishment of the desired behavior. A criterion for judging the quality of the desired behavior should be specified. All contracts with various students should be the equivalent in scope. 5.  Applied behavior analysis (ABA) or behavior modification: This is one of the most common uses of operant conditioning, and is based on assumption that behavior problems are based upon past and present environmental circumstances. The present environment is modified to promote reinforcement of acceptable behaviors, and non-reinforcement of unacceptable ones. The components of this process are the following: Present and desired behaviors are specified in measurable terms. An effective enforcer is identified. A specific intervention or treatment plan is developed. Behavior is measured both before and during treatment. Treatment is monitored for effectiveness and modified if needed. Measures are taken to promote generalization of newly acquired behaviors. Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Criticisms of Using Reinforcement in the Classroom:   Many criticisms of operant conditioning show a misunderstanding of the theory. For example some critics say that reinforcement is bribery, that reinforcement promotes dependence on concrete external rewards, that reinforcing one student teaches others said to be bad, and that changing a problem behavior does not change the underlying cause of the behavior. Genuine concerns and criticisms: Attempts at changing behavior ignore cognitive factors that may be interfering with learning, such as a learning disability. Reinforcement of particular predetermined behaviors sometimes interferes with maximal learning and performance over the long run. Students can perform along at a level where they get the minimum amount of work done to receive the reinforcement instead of being challenged to excel. Extrinsic reinforcement of a behavior that already has an intrinsic motivation can affect the intrinsic motivation. For example a student who is intrinsically motivated to do superior work and becomes actually dependent on external rewards when that reward replaces the internal or intrinsic reward. Possible effects of aversive stimuli:  (1) Escape and (2) Avoidance of learning: Students can learn how to escape or avoid behavior is that result in unpleasant responses. For example, if a student has very unpleasant experiences in test taking and resulting anxiety occurs, the student can learn how to avoid taking tests. This can be skipping school on days of tests, or disruptive behavior. Whenever such stimuli are presented repeatedly, and an organism cannot avoid or escape or otherwise end the stimuli, the organism will eventually give up and passively accept those stimuli. This is the phenomenon of learned helplessness. People exhibit these symptoms when they cannot control the occurrence of aversive events. Learned helplessness has been postulated as an explanation of clinical depression. Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Punishment Punishment takes two forms; one form decreases the strength of a response when it is presented after that response. Usually this involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Another type of punishment is one where a removal of a stimulus, easily a pleasant one, happens. For example, a student’s privileges for playtime could be removed for bad behavior. Disadvantages of punishment: A punished behavior is not eliminated, is only suppressed. Punishment sometimes leads to an increase in the punished behavior because students get more attention when being punished. The student might not recognize the punishment being linked to a specific behavior. Punishment can often result in undesirable emotional responses and may even lead to escape or avoidance behaviors. Punishment may lead to aggression. Punishment does not illustrate the correct behavior. Punishment may even cause physical or psychological harm. The effectiveness of punishment: Despite its negatives, punishment can be shown to have a positive effect on individual in classroom environment. Guidelines for using punishment effectively:   The punishment must be punishing. * The punishments must be strong enough to be effective but not overly severe. Punishment should be threatened once before it is administered. The behavior to be punished should be described in clear, concrete terms. Punishment should be consistent. (* e.g., classic sketch on Third Rock from the Sun series where the "alien" teen, Tommy, was "punished" by the P.E. coach.  Tommy said he didn't see any point in climbing the rope suspended from the gym ceiling.  The coach said that, as a punishment, he'd have to go sit with the girls.  Tommy says, "Let me get this straight.  My choices are to go climb up that rope -- or else decide not to climb the rope and go sit with the girls?"  This was not an effective punishment for Tommy.  It would only work if he minded sitting with the girls or if he minded the coach's scorn of his "manliness."  Top of page | Operant Conditioning heading Where Operant Conditioning Techniques are Most Appropriate:   Students who will most benefit from an environment of stability and consistency. Usually students who benefit most from these techniques are those who are poorly motivated, have high anxiety, or a history of failure. Highly anxious students may need structure to perform well. Students who have no motivation for learning can be encouraged, through reward, to obtain basic skills. It may not work for everyone though.  It can undermine intrinsic motivation and programmed instruction can be boring for bright students.

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